The psychology of risky activities in males

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This essay will examine the various activities that are deemed to be risky and will offer an explanation as to why particularly males undertake such activities. Research suggests that social and cultural factors can be use to explain why males indulge in activities that could lead to serious injuries or death, but other factors such as biological and psychological factors are discussed. The aim of this essay is establish whether health promotion material can have an affect on the increasing number of health complaints as a result of risky behaviour and explores the idea of whether popular media can be used as a medium for such promotion due to a tendency for males not to attend doctors surgerys as regularly as females.

INTRODUCTION

There is a range of different models and definitions of health. These differing models have influenced the way that mens health has been viewed. Llyod (16) identified three main definitions, relating to biological health, risk and risk-taking and finally masculinity (the process of learning to be a man). A report by the Chief Medical Officer concluded that the primary difference between mens health and womens health was variations in exposure to risk factors. It would appear that where individual men take risks, the health promotion material is tasked to encourage them to stop. As Courtenay (18) has argued, young men in particular are encouraged to engage in risky behaviours that put them at high risk of injury and death. Recent research (Ozanne-Smith 000, Nowak etal 000) concludes that there is an excess of men involved with accidental injuries from their activities, but I suggest that the literature has to be treated with caution, as undeniably the proportion of males to females indulging in such activities is much higher and thus the data will have a tendency to be skewed towards a male population. Therefore the question of why males indulge in such risky behaviour has to be asked.

WHAT IS IT TO BE MALE?

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The concept of hegemonic masculinity originates within work in the sociology of gender. Work by Connell (18) refers to the traditionally dominant model of masculinity as hegemonic masculinity, which society perceives as true maleness. This social construction defines a real man as essentially a tough, unemotional, competitive and aggressive character (Lee 00). According to this model, men must compete to demonstrate their superiority to other men. There is evidence to suggest that aspects of hegemonic masculinity do affect male attitudes and behaviours, pressuring them to choose to act in ways which are harmful to their health and which may lead to a reduced life expectancy. Sociocultural pressures encourage men to engage in stereotypically masculine behaviour in order to differentiate themselves as much as possible; therefore men have a tendency to disregard knowledge about healthy lifestyles and to choose harmful behaviours. Masculinity can be seen as a set of distinctive practices that take their shape from social structures. Connell (15) suggests that the interplay between men and social structures is in fact about benefits and gains that individual men may get by accepting these roles and in some cases striving for the status and power that accompanies them. Some males will take such risks as driving fast and competing in extreme sports because the benefits and status attached to these risks (with their mates) may outweigh the risks to their health. Indeed, Kerr etal (1) concludes that some forms of human behaviour serve no obvious biological need and, in terms of the individuals health and well being, appear to be positively self-destructive.

Since their early childhood, males are socialised to expose themselves to risk, indeed, research by Dawber and Morrongiello (000) found that mothers of small girls were more likely to caution their daughters against potentially risky activities, while mothers of small boys encouraged them to take risks. The research is supported by Petersen (000) who has concluded that risk-taking behaviours often start and possibly remain throughout the teenage years and have become a major public health concern. Psychoactive substance use, dangerous driving, etc., are related to a significant mortality and morbidity.

These risk-taking behaviours can be explained by sensation seeking. Sensation Seeking is the tendency to pursue novel & stimulating experiences. Those high in Sensation Seeking have strong positive affective reactions to situations of novelty & risk, are sensitive to internal sensations and choose environments that augment them (Zuckerman 14). Zuckerman continues by defining sensation seeking as a trait describing the tendency to seek novel, varied, complex, and intense sensations and experiences and the willingness to take risks for the sake of the experience. Zuckerman notes (14, p.16) that skydivers are characterized with both higher sensation seeking ambitions and a search for thrilling experiences, than most other partakers of other risky activities. An earlier view of psychologists in the late fifties was that skydivers had an inherent death wish, however it is noted that risk itself is not an attraction which is reduced as much as possible by developing skills...careful planning...and intense concentration. (14, p.175) An approach-avoidance conflict model is proposed whereby anxiety state varies directly with degree of appraised risk. (14, p.15) It is claimed that high sensation seekers believe risks to be not as great as do low sensation seekers. The sensations are also valued less by the low sensation seeker. Sensation seekers are attracted to novel and intense situations, willing to accept the risks involved and attempt to maximise arousal. It seems that in some males, dangerousness linked to an activity has an activating and/or stimulating function, some seem to enjoy participating in what some might consider very-high-risk or extreme sports activities (Patel 000).

A study by Slanger etal (17) examined the roles of sensation seeking and self-efficacy in explaining extreme and high physical risk taking behavior. The research included twenty extreme risk takers chosen from participants in skiing, rock climbing, kayaking, and a control group which was comprised of twenty high, but not extreme, risk takers from each of these activities, matched to the participants in skill and experience. A second control group consisted of twenty trained athletes involved in moderate risk sports. Percepts of self-efficacy emerged as the principle variable differentiating the groups. A social cognitive explanation for desire for mastery was used to understand what enables risk takers to overcome the potentially inhibiting influences of anxiety, fear, and the recognition of danger. The conclusion was further reinforced by converging results from interviews with the participants. Research by Le Breton (000) concludes that males are ... constantly called upon to prove themselves in a society where reference points are both countless and contradictory and where values are in crisis, people are now seeking a one-to-one relationship by radical means, testing their strength of character, their courage and their personal resources.

Although the question of there being a sensation-seeking trait is not being asked, as it could well explain certain male behaviours. However, there appears to be no specific research that supports the view that a sensation-seeking trait is solely dominant within males and therefore from the point of view of this discussion, it has to be reject as an explanation as to why more males than females put themselves at risk by competing in such activities. Also, the data collected from such studies have had a tendency to rely upon self-report questionnaires and also use twins which both respectively have methodological problems.

A recent article suggests that there is a growing trend for extreme sports, the pursuit of dangerous activities. The Dangerous sports club was set up by a group of students who shared an obsessive desire for excitement that could be achieved through risk-taking. These risk-taking activities are particularly popular among men aged 18-5. Research by Gunter (001) suggests that traditional male roles that were a constant test of his strength have now been eradicated, but they still have a basic need to prove themselves. The male has to create artificial circumstances to provide these tests of strengths, but it is also a method of self-acceptance and winning the approval of others. One of the central factors of hegemonic masculinity is that a man should be strong and silent and as Petersen (18) states, a man should not express his emotions openly or with other people.

BIOLOGICAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL FACTORS.

A further factor to explain male behaviour is their biochemical make-up. Adrenalin is released into our bloodstream when we are in a stressful situation, causing the so-called fight or flight response reaction. A by-product of adrenalin is a substance called dopamine, a pleasure chemical that gives a naturally occurring feel good effect. Research has revealed that, in common with drug addicts who crave their next fix, many individuals partaking in extreme sports feel an unconscious need to top-up their dopamine levels, just to function normally. This biochemical factor can also be attributed to the fact that there are higher levels of testosterone within males and consequently this may lead to more aggressive and risky behaviours. However, Fletcher (17) disagrees with this view by concluding that attributing unwise behaviour to testosterone poisoning and the use of dubious analogies with the instinctive behaviour patterns of other species serve to deny the role of social influences in male behaviours (Watson 000). Lee etal (00) support such findings and conclude that differences in male and female accidental injury/death rates are explained by social and cultural factors which encourage males to choose activities which expose them to greater risks.

Alcohol and drug abuse, (although health risks in their own right), and peer group pressure, may have a contributory affect upon undertaking extreme sports. Without the ability to think coherently and think of the dangers, some may take part for fun or in the case of an individual present in the company of other males then there maybe the tendency to display traditional, stereotypical masculinity in order to avoid ridicule and isolation from the group. Identifying certain personality traits could determine those individuals who may involve themselves in risky activities. Research has suggested that individuals with Type A behaviours have an action-emotion complex, defined by competitiveness and achievement striving, in order to satisfy their desires they aim to establish themselves as the best in all that they do, which may often mean taking their activities to the extreme.

Another attributing factor that could explain risky male behaviour, maybe the socio-economic situation they are faced with. For example, males who participate in the sport of boxing - deemed to be a highly risky activity by the British Medical Association (1) - may have to continue in the sport, in spite of the literature that is now being presented that it could cause a detrimental affect upon health (Jones 001), as it is their only means of income. Under performance at school and a lack of motivation in the workplace are possible explanations to why they pursue a career as a boxer in the full knowledge they may well get hurt. Indeed, it is still a stereotypical view that it should be the male who is the 'bread-winner' and provide for his family again social and cultural influences upon the male's behaviour. However, competing as a boxer can again be explained by the traditional notion of masculinity, i.e. boxing can be seen as the ultimate display of being a true man, someone without no fear and the opportunity to demonstrate strength and courage.

THE MEDIA AS A TOOL OF HEALTH PROMOTION.

The media is often cited as reflecting and portraying the standards set by society and have long been considered to have an important role in defining and shaping culture (Craig, 14), therefore, the media should be one focus of any research of men and their behaviours. The appearance of such magazines as FHM and Mens Health exposes males to influential figures. The phrase "identificatory role models" suggests a potentially important theoretical mediator of the media's effects. Individuals who participate in any extreme activity are often portrayed by the media as daredevils, and deemed to be popular, successful and attractive. These individuals appear to have power and control - they are real men. The media discusses whether men are redundant, consequently some men find extreme ways to show that they are still real men (Davidson, Llyod, 001). The process of modeling as explicated in social learning theory, (Bandura 178), provides a theoretical means by which males may acquire the idea of indulging in risky behaviour in order to comply with the need to be masculine.

Although these magazines appear to be popularising the risk-taking behaviours of other males, the magazines do contain just about the only source of easily accessible information targeted specifically at them on how to lead a healthier lifestyle (Davidson etal, 001). However, a major criticism of the health coverage given by these magazines is that healthier lifestyle articles tend to be sandwiched between a larger numbers of other articles that appear to encourage distinctly unhealthy behaviour. Most of the magazines devote considerable attention to high-risk sports and this tends to be compounded by a lack of articles exploring the nature of masculinity itself or encourage a softer maleness (Davidson etal, 001). Anderson etal (1) found that in mens magazines, ...men were disproportionately subjected to articles depicting strong, tough and aggressive characters. These images may inadvertently lead to males conducting risky behaviour to display their masculinity to friends and family.

How can health promotion material help in attempting to reduce risky behaviour? Using material based upon the model of theory of reasoned action - which has been designed to explain all human behaviour that is under voluntary control. The model suggests that attitudes and an individuals perceptions of social influences can affect the intentions and subsequently the behaviour of the individual. Friends give us a sense of belonging and provide emotional support. People without such relationships are more vulnerable to a variety of problems. However studies have shown that male friends interact quite differently from female friends, where mens friendships are marked by shared activities. Their talk tends to centre on work, sports and sharing expertise (Craig, 14), but is not intimate for a fear of appearing homosexual. A study by Miller (18) suggests that an important inhibition to closeness between males is the competition among males learned in school, sports and business. Therefore any health promotion material has to first 'disable' any 'stereotypical', 'reinforced' ideas of masculinity and show that by not participating in risky activities then they are no less a man.

Communicating risk is a key public health strategy. The implicit assumptions are that the public interprets risk information in a logical fashion and adopts behavioural changes to reduce risk. Risk-taking behaviour is highest amongst younger people, and males. Public health measures should not assume that information campaigns would necessarily lead to a reduction in risk behaviour (Cook etal 001). People tend to read warnings if they perceive an activity or product to be dangerous or if they are less familiar with it. The perception of danger increased in reported compliance with warnings. Although familiarity with a particular activity increased the reading of warnings, familiarity did not increase reported compliance with warnings. Men were more likely to participate in high-risk sports (Vredenburgh etal 16).

An alternative to using the media as a medium to talk about health concerns is to attempt males to go to their doctors on a more regular basis who can advice them on the risks of certain activities. However, if as illustrated, a male is addicted to their risky behaviour there will be a need for a strong motivation to change their behaviour, but this approach is undermined by the view that seeking help is a sign of weakness and it is inappropriate to expose vulnerabilities to others. Research by Turner etal (000) confirms this view by studying male footballers that continued to play even when injured. Turner also suggests that continuous participation, spanning a career of over twenty years has left a large percentage of individuals with health problems and causing a decrease in quality of life. Indeed, Roderick (000) reveals that having a good attitude was required which was reinforced by punitive practices at the clubs studied. Roderick continues by stating that players were often ostracised and ignored by managers when injured and having to report to the club everyday creating a sense of inconvenience for the player.

SUMMARY.

Camerom etal (18) agrees with other literature when stating men are more likely to adopt risky behaviours. However, young men are likely to see little point in changing risk behaviours, whilst older men tend to express the view that at their age it is to late for behavioural changes to have any effect upon health (Lee 00). Unfortunately, neither of these attitudes is consistent with the empirical evidence (Davis etal 14). Younger males are disproportionately at risk of injury and accidental death and have lower levels of health promoting behaviour that are encouraged by socially mediated beliefs about masculine behaviour.

The production of health promotion material if delivered sensibly can have an affect upon the behaviours of males; nevertheless any health material has to ensure its effectiveness against the concept of hegemonic masculinity. It appears from the literature that the biggest influences on male behaviour are social and cultural, (this is based solely upon evidence within the western world and without completing studies in other nations we cannot conclusively say) but this is not to say that other factors are not involved. In answer to whether popular forms of media could help in the delivery of health promotion, I believe they can, as they have a large circulation and reach, but production of these magazines is based upon the pretext of providing males with the notion of what 'being a male is' and invariably this will involve exposure to possible risky activities.

Caffray etal (000) have analysed the way in which the popular media direct information about mens health and health behaviours towards females reinforcing the notion that men should not concern themselves with health issues. Understanding the motivation underlying paradoxical behaviour should be of interest to those involved in clinical practice. However, it is important to state that individuals who partake in sport/exercise (albeit, extreme) may have increased self-esteem and self-confidence which impacts upon the levels of depression and anxiety. A lower level of depression and anxiety has a tendency to result in lower stress levels thus individuals may experience less common health problems and longer life expectancies.

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