Hester Prynne and the Puritans

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Hester Prynnes life was difficult and unique, with many trying events and circumstances that changed her and separated her from the common people. Great rifts eventually formed between her and the community in which she lived. These differences could be put into two categories the outward distinction, and the inward change. The outward distinction is easy to identify. It is Hesters adultery, and it is signified in the scarlet letter A and her daughter Pearl. The inward change is much more subtle and harder to express. It is the alteration in Hesters mind and soul that could be said to have originated from the day of her public shame. Outwardly she seemed to have repented and reformed, embracing the Puritan theology wholeheartedly, but in her mind and heart she was a different person and had turned away from the Puritans way of life. Not only had she turned away from the Puritans, but she had turned away from God, too. This was shown in some of the things that she did.

To first understand how Hester was separate from the society around her, one must understand the society itself. The Puritan way of life, which was supposed to be unique, was not really all that different from the societies found everywhere in Europe at that time. Probably the most distinctive thing about it was that, though elsewhere this was a big part of society, the Puritan life was based almost entirely upon religion. The Puritan life was almost entirely ruled by laws, being that one of their beliefs was that strict discipline was good for people. He [the Puritan] thought God had left a rule in His word for discipline, and that aristocratical by elders, not monarchical by bishops, nor democratical by the people.1 These laws were from the Bible, and the leaders of the people though just barely not the official government, were the church leaders. The Scarlet Letter states, a people amongst whom religion and law were almost identical, and in whose character both were ... thoroughly interfused..

Because of this close intertwining of church and state and mans tendency to become corrupt, things tended to go toward extremes. There was probably less tolerance in Puritan New England for the smallest differences of opinions than there was almost any where else in the world. John Cotton, a minister in New England, said that, Here members of the church have suffered whippings for having a whim of their own. This is ironic, considering that most of the people in New England because they had fled from oppression and wanted religious freedom.

These negative attributes were stressed by the Puritans enemies, as shown in a litany They [the Puritans] are Blind-hearted, Proud, Vaine-glorious; Deep Hypocrites, Hateful and Enuious; Malitious, in a full high excess, and full of all Uncharitableness.

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This was not quite the atmosphere that Hester was in, but helps to paint a picture of what it might have been like. However, because of this environment, she changed inwardly. Many people in that day had probably begun to strongly associate punishment with repentance. Perhaps this is even what Hester herself did. Unfortunately, they are entirely different things. Notice that Hester never completely repented of her adultery. Arthur Dimmesdale put it perfectly when he said, Of penance, I have had enough! Of penitence, there has been none!5 Hesters sin still remained, and finally surfaced again seven years later, when she talked to Dimmesdale in the woods and urged him to run away with her. This harbored sin altered her view of the world around her and of God.

Hester continued acting like the repentant sinner, devoting some of her work for the poor, teaching Pearl about the Bible, etc.; but it was more mechanical than intellectual. Why shouldnt she? In fact, she was probably trying to convince herself, as Arthur was doing, that she had really repented and changed. This isnt to say that she wasnt a good person anymore, she was, probably more so than before, she had just lost touch with God, and didnt seem to be striving very hard to return. This was shown when Mistress Hibbins said to Hester, Wilt thou go with us tonight? There will be a merry company in the forest; and I well nigh promised the Black Man that comely Hester Prynne should make one. Hester answered, Had they taken her (Pearl) from me, I would willingly have gone with thee into the forest, and signed my name in the Black Mans book too, and that with mine own blood!6

Not only had Hester changed spiritually, but she had changed mentally as well. Hawthorne wrote, The links that united her to the rest of human kind ... had all been broken.7 The scarlet letter seemed to have an effect on Hester. The effect of the symbol ... on the mind of Hester Prynne herself was powerful and peculiar.8 She broke away from the strict Puritan point of view and began to have new perspectives. The worlds law was no law for her mind .... She assumed a freedom of speculation ... which our forefathers, had they known it, would have held to be a deadlier crime than that stigmatized by the scarlet letter. She might have given up her mask of submissive outcast, and become like Anne Hutchinson, but one thing held her back; Pearl. Had little Pearl never come to her from the spiritual world ... she might have come down to us in history,... as foundress of a religious sect.10

It is obvious that Hester was very different from the others in the Puritan society. She inwardly rejected their views, even though she tried to blend in perfectly outwardly. She even rejected their religious views when she didnt repent for her adultery. Who knows? She might have repented with Arthur on his dying day upon the scaffold. The book is not clear on this point. However, it is clear that Hester was unique, a victim of many sore trials and temptations. She was the exception in the uniform crowd of the Puritans.

Hawthorne, Nathaniel. The Scarlet Letter. Logan, Iowa The Perfection Form Company, 17.

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Car robbery

If you order your custom term paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on car robbery. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality car robbery paper right on time.

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Now a days cities and towns are getting more crowded. In California, people have more cars per one family. As a link to that, people have less space to make parking lots. Most houses have parking lots in the basement of their apartments. Some of the houses have parking by the side of the streets. That way it gets more crowded. Sometimes people, who live in apartments and park by the street, usually don't get a parking space if they don't get there early. Therefore, they have to park their cars far from their apartments. There are more chances of getting car stolen when people park their cars far away from their houses and in an isolated area.

People could get car robbed by making some easy mistakes. Such as leaving the keys in the ignitions, leaving the door unlock while putting or taking things out of the trunk, and sometimes reselling it.

You can solve the problem of car robbery by working on some of your habits. One of those habits is leaving the key inside of the car. In some cases, people, if they want to go to pick up somebody, they just leave the keys in the ignitions. They think they will come back in a minute. But in that minute anybody who only does the business of stealing, has a good chance of taking off with the car. It happens more in the residential area than at the stores. If they can't remember to take out the keys then they should have some kind of

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beeper system. So if they leave the key inside the car than the beeper beeps and then they don't have a problem of getting their car stolen.

Another mistake people do is they leave the door unlock. You can solve that by having a beeper system. Another, having an alarm system. That goes on when you leave the door open. Also, you should check all doors twice before you off to any place you want to go. Most of the time people are in so much hurry that they forget to lock the door. Sometimes they lock all the doors by using the manual lock. It may not always work. Most of the time it works, but you never know when something will happen if the door you think is locked, and it's not. So it's better to use a key to lock the door than using a manual lock.

The next thing people do is, they do not use a key to open the trunk. They use a remote, or they open the trunk from inside of the car. That way they forget to lock the door and just go to put things or take out things from the trunk. Sometimes someone can come and drive away with the car. Once in the news they showed how someone drove away a car with child in it.

Cars even get stolen while reselling them. Sometimes when people want to resell the car, they let the customer try it who sometimes drive off and never come back. It was in the news one day, "be careful while reselling the car." If you want to resell the car, and the other person wants to try it, then you should go with that person. Another, you can get all the registration papers and other important document from the car, so that person can not sell it again. Next, you can get that person's address, phone number, and other information before showing the car, and letting them try it.

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It's a big risk if you forget the key inside, or leave the door open even by

mistake. It costs people much more than their money and time. Usually people do such kind of mistake in hurry. Also, you can not know by looking at a person that if that person is a robber or not. Therefore, I think there are many ways to remind your self that someone could take a chance of your forgetful memory. Finally, these were some of the solution for prevent your cars stolen.

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May Arkwright Hutton

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May Arkwright Hutton had a primitive flamboyance, rough and crude, filled with a joy for life. She had a willingness to listen, weigh and analyze the thinking of others and the courage to stand on her own. She had a viable interest in the news of the day and an urge shape and reform the world she lived in. May would develop a passion for and champion two great causes the rights of the working man and women's suffrage.

May had a rough start in life. She never knew her mother and was abandoned by her father when she was ten. May was left with her blind grandfather and became his caretaker, catering to the interests of an old man instead of playing like a little girl.

At age she met and married Gilbert Munn. Gilbert was a simple hardworking man, employed by one of the mines as a stable boss and mule driver. She and Burt moved to Kyle Corners. While living in Kyle Corners Burt left May and later drowned.

May decided to head west to seek better times. Armed with a flyer promising "Coeur D'Alene mines surpassed in riches and volume the most fabulous quartz and placer ever discovered", May convinced 40 miners to make the trip west with her.

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May arrived in Idaho and headed for Eagle City working as a cook for Jim Wardner. A big break came for May when new broke that D.C. Corbin was building a narrow gauge railroad from the mission dock to Kellogg. May obtained information about where the tracks were going to be laid and promptly set up her own restaurant own. May has been quoted as saying she bought a two-room shack on a piece of land as well as a cow, a broom, a bucket and a cook stove. In the front room of the shack she set up the restaurant and in the back her sleeping quarters. May found it to be an exciting world and had no intention of letting it pass her by. She worked long hours and she was loved and respected by the miners she fed and the prostitutes she befriended.

Her happiness and success came when she met and married Levi "Al" Hutton a railroad engineer. They had a common background and both were hardworking. In 1888 the Huttons moved to Wallace Idaho. They bought a 1/16th interest in the Hercules mine for $505 dollars. In 18 the Huttons found themselves in the middle of one of the biggest union actions I the region. When the union workers decided to protest against the mine owners by blowing up the Bunker Hill and Sullivan Mine they high-jacked the train Levi was running and forced him to drive them and the explosives to the mines. This trip was later called the Dynamite Express. Levi Hutton was arrested and locked up in the "Bull Pen". May protested her husband being locked up with out due process. She visited daily smuggling food when possible. She was popular with the prisoners and resented by the guards who treated her with open hostility. May wrote a novel about the incident called "The Coeur D'Alene or a Tale of Modern Inquisition in Idaho. After Al was released the railroad refused to rehire him from then on he devoted himself to working in the Hercules mine. The mine finally paid off in 101 making the Huttons millionaires. They bought a house and lived lavishly. In 106 they moved to a mansion in Spokane.

Spokane and May were made for each other both rambunctious, cocky, independent and socially immature. The Spokane years the equal rights movement and innumerable good causes dominated Mays life. Her enthusiasm for unions was reinforced when she came to realize that they were open to the idea of equal rights. She loathed injustice and to deny women the right to vote was the grossest kind of injustice. May felt that women should be able to vote, own property and operate their own business. She new that women had to have men on their side and she saw unions as a way to do this.1 While involved in the suffrage movement iron will May locked horns with an iron willed Emma DeVoe. Both were committed leaders but that is where the similarities ended. Emma DeVoe was a highly educated cultured and poised trained in the circles of high society. May was an American primitive. Personal differences were not the only thing that separated these women. Both women had very different ideas about the type of campaigned that should be run. Emma promoted a quiet dignified platform with mailings to wives, mothers and sweethearts. May was just the opposite, loud and boisterous, wanting parades and rallies. May found herself being snubbed by Emma Devoe and her followers. The National Women's Suffrage movement was scheduled to convene in June of 10. May designed a plan to take over the state representation from Devoe. She offered a free trip to the Worlds Fair to anyone who would sell 50 memberships to the women in the state association. The local Spokane branch quickly outgrew all other branches. Because of the seemly underhanded way she gained majority Mays group was seated but not allowed to vote. Out of the dispute with Emma DeVoe May formed a group called Washington Political Equality League.1 May was one of the first women to sit on a jury in Washington State as well as the first women from the state to attend the Democratic National Convention.5

Her last great cause would be for peace. Al and May set up their estate to establish the Hutton settlement, a place for children with out a home.4 In 14 May was diagnosed with Brights disease. She was extremely ill, losing over 100 lbs.4 She organized her former suffrages in the cause of peace. She wrote poems about peace and had them set to music. When the Washington State Federation of Women's Club held it's annual meeting May had to be involved but was too ill to attend. She invited the convention to a lawn party at her house. May was in the midst of it sitting in a wheel chair but dressed in a new gown.

May passed away October 6, 115 but to the very end she was shoving, pushing, and promoting her various causes.

From a mining camp cook to a millionaire all through her life May Arkwright Hutton championed organized labor and women's suffrage. Her battles were for human basic rights and she was a powerful force in shaping Pacific Northwest history

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WW1 Letter - Pretend U are in there shoes and u r dying

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Dear Family,

How are all of you? Unfortunately since the last time I visited, I'm not doing so well. I have just recently semi-recovered from a gas poisoning. My lungs have almost entirely burned. Slowly, I seem to be coming closer and closer to death. This may be my last letter and if it is please forgive me if I have done any of you harm. I am terribly sorry that I couldn't open up my emotions to you all the last time I was there. I kept holding myself back and was very reserved with my feelings, but now I feel the time has come to tell everyone the truth before I die. I can't seem to come to peace with my inner conscience. I wonder whether or not what I am doing is right or if it is inhumane. I never felt like this when I enlisted. All I ever thought about, then, was the glory of becoming a hero and fighting for my country. However, I have realized that none of this is true; war is neither glorious nor honorable. We live in constant terror.

How can anyone kill another human? Neither of them is superior nor inferior to the other. The only difference is that the two come from different national backgrounds, which shouldn't mean anything at all. Despite the minor differences, the greatest similarity is that both are victims of war and terror. Regrettably, I too have become a victim of war. I enlisted with the thought that war is the only way, and I must have great pride for my country and with that pride, it was my duty to defend my homeland. A few weeks back, I was separated from my company and was forced to hide out in a shell hole by myself. I was frightened and startled by every little sound. Then, out of nowhere, a French soldier jumps into the hole with me. Instinctively, I stabbed him. I swear I didn't know what I was doing at the time. I only wish it was me and not that poor soldier, who is a victim of war like me. That man suffered along painful death. I tried to help him, but it was too late. I looked through his belongings; his name was Grard Duval and he had a wife and child at home waiting for his return. I had just widowed a wife and orphaned a child; what kind of man am I.

Anyone who thinks going to war is an honor is wrong. War only brings on extravagant numbers of deaths. It leaves children without parents, wives without husbands, and parents without sons. No one ever realizes the realities of war. Someone has to come out and tell the world that war should never be a solution. Everyone around me is dead; all my friends, former classmates, and fellow soldier have all died. I will too. I can feel it coming on. I only pray that the Lord forgives me for all my shortcomings, and that the future generation doesn't commit the same mistake we did. I pray for peace for the world.

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I must end my letter here. My emotions have been exposed, and now the world has incites of an actual soldier who went to battle. I hope my story is told to the generations to come. Mom, I hope you feel better and may somehow one day overcome your cancer. May god watch over you all and protect you from all harm. Now in memory of all the recent deaths of my fellow soldiers, "All Quiet on the Western Front."

With love,

Paul Bäumer

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Austrian abstract guidelines

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Writing the Abstract for your Thesis

1. When writing an Austrianabstract of your thesis, the structure should be as follows

· 1st paragraph

ü introduce the subject/area of study,

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ü outline the aim(s) of your thesis,

ü the area(s) that you examined,

ü the question(s) you tried to answer,

ü the hypothesis you tested, etc.

Useful language

The purpose/aim of this thesis is to …. examine/analyse/define/outline/look at …etc.

In this thesis, the problem of ……………. is described/investigated/analysed.

This thesis addresses issues relating to / concerning …………………

In this thesis, the hypothesis that ……………. is tested

· nd paragraph

ü outline the way you researched your topic e.g.

Useful language

A review of current literature on this topic is undertaken. Then interviews are conducted amongst …… (shoppers) / ……..businesses are questioned. Subsequently, the results are analysed using ..(mention research tools/models etc.)

· rd paragraph

ü refer back to your original aims/questions (given in the 1st paragraph),

ü summarise your conclusions and findings, e.g.

ü Additionally any recommendations (e.g. for further study) can also be given.

Useful language

The findings suggest that……………

In conclusion, it was found that …………

The analysis highlights ………………

It would seem that ….

On the basis of the research conducted, ……………..

. Length should be about 00 50 words. Keep it short and simple. Do not go into detail. Use your contents page to guide you.

. Use formal, impersonal language (no slang or idiomatic expressions, etc). Using passive structures will avoid use of 'I' and other personal language, e.g. 'I found that …' better ' It was found that…'. Do not include personal opinions e.g. I think that…

4. Generally speaking, the present tense is to be used.

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Dfghdfg

If you order your research paper from our custom writing service you will receive a perfectly written assignment on dfghdfg. What we need from you is to provide us with your detailed paper instructions for our experienced writers to follow all of your specific writing requirements. Specify your order details, state the exact number of pages required and our custom writing professionals will deliver the best quality dfghdfg paper right on time.

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The Death Penalty

Today in our society the dispute over capital punishment has become one of the most talked about moral and judicial controversies. Capital punishment, the death penalty, has always existed in American history, and unfortunately it is still being used today. Even though polls and statistics have proven that capital punishment is inefficient, the government still insists that it is a just way to punish criminals and deter crime.

The judicial inefficiency of capital punishment has cost taxpayers hundreds of millions of dollars and it has cost some innocent men their lives. Most Americans believe that the death penalty is aer way of justice, and they argue, "Why should we waste our tax money keeping criminals in jail opposed to executing them?" The financial expense of the death penalty is a weak case when talking about the value of a human life. Even so, the truth to the common myth of the death penalty beinger than imprisonment is that keeping criminals behind bars, and out of trouble, actually adds up to only a fraction of what it would cost to execute them. A New York study shows that the average amount of money for sentencing a criminal to death is $1,800,000 as opposed to $660,000 for keeping the prisoner alive and in jail for forty years. Due to the appeals of the courts' rulings, court time, and legal histrionics by defense attorneys, the process of execution may take up to several years, in which during that time period the criminal may have already died of natural causes while on death row. Recently, the

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state of Florida spent $5,700,000 to execute eighteen criminals. This cost is six times greater than what it would have cost ($50,000) if the state were to have kept them in jail for the rest of their lives.

Not only is capital punishment inadequate and inconsistent in financial expenses, it also costs the lives of innocent men. Between the twenty-three year time span of 17 to 15 there were approximately five thousand five hundred capital convictions in the United States. Of those, an estimated report entitled "Error Rates in Capital Cases, which was put out by Professor James S. Liebman of the Columbia Law School, suggests that at least sixty-eight percent (,740) of those cases have had critical errors before they even make it into court. These are errors that are prejudicial, which means they were serious errors, and they were reversible. Although they were not all caught during the first review of the case, they were still all prevalent and ended up causing the end of a man's right to live. As Professor Liebman stated, American capital sentences are persistently and systematically fraught with serious error. Indeed, capital trials produce so many mistakes that it takes three judicial inspections to catch them, leaving grave doubt whether we do catch them all. With this statement in mind, one can only begin to imagine exactly how high the percent of errors in capital sentencing might be if all the errors were found.

The three most common errors found in the study were "egregiously incompetent defense lawyers," 7%; "faulty instructions to jurors," 0%; and "prosecutorial misconduct, often the suppression of evidence of innocence," 1%. Using only those three categories, already seventy-six percent of the cases have errors in them. Since the

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beginning of this study began twenty-three years ago, there have been nineteen years in which over half of the convictions made have had errors in them, which caused the original ruling to be overturned. Last year over sixty percent of the cases had errors in them, and ninety percent of the states that use the death penalty had over one half of their convictions overturned. The whole idea of innocent lives being taken can best be summed up by the words of Professor Liebman; The death penalty system is one in which lives and public order are at stake, yet for decades has been fraught with more mistakes than we would tolerate in far less important activities.

The ineffectiveness of capital punishment goes beyond the ridiculous expenses of the taxpayers and the injustices done to innocent men. The death penalty promotes the immoral account of revenge to society. This raises the question of, "Whose right is it to give a human life as retribution to those who seek vengeance?" The threat of a convicted criminal behind bars is no less of a threat than that of an executed convict, yet the government and public remain unsatisfied. There is a fine line between justice and revenge, which appears to be blind to society. Even the families of some of the victims feel that jail time is preferable to that of the death penalty. Even in one of the most surprising, uncalled-for murders in the last century the widow of the victim felt that "as one whose husband and mother-in-law have both died the victims of murder assassination, I stand unequivocally opposed to the death penalty… An evil deed is not redeemed by an evil deed of retaliation." These words were proclaimed by Coretta Scott King, the widow of Martin Luther King Jr.

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In a country that values inspirational leaders so greatly, the death penalty would seem less likely to survive for as long as it has. With around one fourth of the country directly following the orders of the Pope and that of the Catholic Church, one would suspect the people would share Pope John Paul II viewpoint on the death penalty. He holds the position of the death penalty being "cruel and unnecessary," and he expresses opposition to its use "even in the case of someone who has done great evil." Considering the proclamation issued by Pope Leo XIII, Rerum Novarum, which instructed Catholics to take part in their government by voicing the Catholic Church's perspective on issues in which the Church has taken a stance. Even the non-Catholic Christians should follow the ideas of Mother Teresa who stated, "Remember what you do to these men, you do to God." With these words in mind, everybody should fear taking the life of a man because, in essence, they are taking part of God away from this earth. And in the world that exists today, the last thing we need on earth is to have less God than what is currently present.

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Rat3es of reaction

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Adeel Malik 11/g December 00

Aim

The aim of this experiment is to investigate how the resistance of a wire changes in relationship to its length. We will increase the length of the wire and measure the voltage and current, and then calculating the resistance.

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Prediction

I think that as the length of the wire increases so will the resistance of it. I also believe that the rate at which the length of the wire is increased, the resistance of the wire will also increase in direct proportion to the length. The graph to show this should therefore look something like this

A graph to show the relationship between resistance of a wire and it's length.

The resistance of the wire is directly proportional to the length of it.

Theory

With electricity, the property that transforms electrical energy into heat energy, in opposing electrical current, is resistance. In a conducting material a property of the atoms is that they have free electrons in the outer shell of their structure. All metals are conductors and have an arrangement in similar form to this

As a result of the structure of all conductive atoms, the outer electrons are able to move about freely even in a solid. When there is a potential difference across a conductive material all of the free electrons arrange themselves in lines moving in the same direction. This forms an electrical current.

When current is passed through a conductor, the electrons move from areas of high potential (i.e. the negative terminal of the power source) to areas of low potential (i.e. the positive terminal of the power source.

Flow of electrons from negative to positive

Resistance is created when the negatively charged particles that make up the current, collide with other fixed particles in the material. As the resistance of a material increases so to must the force required to drive the same amount of current. In fact resistance, in ohms(R) is equal to the electromotive force or potential difference, in volts (V) divided by the current, in amperes (I) Ohms law.

R=V/I

As the length of the wire is increased the number of collisions the current carrying charged particles make with fixed particles also increases and therefore the value for the resistance of the wire becomes higher. Resistance, in ohms (R) is also equal to the resistivity of the wire, in ohm-meters (ñ) multiplied by the length, in meters (l) divided by the cross sectional area, in square meters (A).

R= n x l/a

Any solid material is made up of atoms, packed up closely together in a structure. If electrons are flowing through the material (i.e. it is being used as a conductor) it is likely that all, of them will, at some point on their journey through the material, hit one or more of the atoms in the material, and so get slowed down. This effect is resistance.

An electron passing through a cool material

If the kinetic energy of the atoms in the material increases (i.e. the material is warmed up), the atoms will vibrate more, and thus take up more space. This means that it is more probable that electrons will hit the atoms, so the resistance increases.

An electron passing through a warm material

If you increase the diameter of a piece of wire, there is more room for the electrons to move in.

Effect of cross-sectional area on resistance

The material and cross sectional area of the wire is constant throughout the experiment. Therefore it is clear from the formula that the resistance should be directly proportional to the length.

Some use ful formulas I will need to use

Diagram

Apparatus

· Power pack

· Nickel Chromium Wire

· Connecting wires

· Ammeter

· Voltmeter

· Crocodile clips

· Heat proof mat

Method

1.Set up the circuit as shown on diagram.

.Cut the wire in lengths of 5cm, 10cm, 15cm, 0cm, 5cm and 0cm.

. Adjust the power supply to the lowest possible setting.

4. Connect the 5cm wire to the circuit. Take readings from the voltmeter and ammeter and record. The resistance can be calculated.

5. Increase the power supply gradually and take reading when the voltmeter reading is at; 0.1, 0., 0. up to 1.0. Calculate the resistance. We will use an average reading.

6. Repeat the procedure for the with the following wires connected between the crocodile clips

- 10cm

- 15cm

- 0cm

- 5cm

- 0cm

7. Use ohms law to calculate the resistance.

We will use lengths starting from 5cms up to 0cms going up in 5 cm. This is because then we can see a large enough difference to compare resistance. If we used a difference of only 1cm then they wouldn't be hardly any difference in the readings, and if we used wires that were two long the resistance readings would be too far apart to plot on a graph.

We are recording the results twice so this way we make sure are results are accurate.

We used a heat proof mat because the wire gets hot as the more current is going through it.

We will record our results in a table and then I will plot a graph of length against resistance. I will draw a line of best fit if the results are slightly out.

Safety

This is not a very dangerous experiment but despite this you must always handle electricity with care, keep the current low, handle with dry hands.

Since there are no high currents, voltages or temperatures being dealt with, and no hazardous radiation or chemicals, no special safety precautions need to taken beyond the usual necessary when dealing with electrical equipment.

· Always make sure your hands are dry when turning off the power switch.

· Turn off the power switch when increasing the length of wire so you don't get an electric shock.

· Don't turn the power pack above 4v.

· Never touch the wire when heating wires else you can seriously be burnt

· Keep all bags under tables and all long hair tied.

Key Factors

Voltage- The voltage of the power pack should never go above 6v as this can be dangerous an will probably melt the metal wire.

Wiring- All the wiring should be connected properly to prevent any problems, this would also save time while doing the experiment.

Temperature- The temperature of the wire is a key aspect. The hotter the wire gets the more it effects the resistance. There is more flow of electrons therefore a smaller resistance.

Length- Firstly, its length (l). If you make the length of conductor longer, you are increasing the number of atoms in the way of the electron flow, and so you are increasing its resistance. As the length of the wire is increased the number of collisions the current carrying charged particles make with fixed particles also increases and therefore the value for the resistance of the wire becomes higher.

Ammeter- The ammeter measures the current in amperes which is important, all wires should be connected properly to the ammeter for accurate readings.

Voltmeter- The voltage is a key factor as it measures the voltage which is very important to the investigation.

Area- Given a larger cross-sectional area for the wire, the electrons are not crammed into such a small space, so resistance is decreased. A good analogy is water in a pipe. If you increase the size of the pipe you can pump more water down it more easily. The resistance of a length of wire can be found by the formula

where l is its length and A is its cross-sectional area.

Crocodile Clips- The connecting leads and crocodile clips will have their own resistance. We need to compensate for this, so for each iteration of the experiment we will connect the crocodile clips together and take a reading before we take any readings with wire between the crocodile clips.

Fair Test

In this experiment we are only changing one factor the length of the wire, the factors that we are going to keep the same are as follows

We must keep the surrounding room temperature the same or the particles in the wire will move faster (if the temperature is increased) and this will therefore have an effect on the resistance.

The cross sectional area of the wire must be kept constant throughout as well. This is shown in equation where the cross sectional area is a factor that effects the resistance. The resisitivity of the wire is kept constant.

If the experiment is to be a fair test, we need to keep all the variables other than the length of the wire constant. The temperature of the wire can be regulated by making sure that the current being passed through the wire is not excessively large. Since (at a constant temperature) voltage × current = constant, we can do this by setting the PSU to supply the smallest possible voltage, i.e. V. We can also minimize the current by keeping the resistance high so if we avoid testing any lengths of wire longer than about 5m we should get rid of the problem.

The material of the wire must also be kept the same as different materials have different conductivity. The last two factors will be kept the same by using the same wire all of the way through the experiment.

The current that we pass through the wire is to be kept the same, also. If this is changed the temperature of the wire might change in a way that is not constant making the results more confusing.

Accuracy

To keep this experiment as accurate as possible we need to make sure, firstly, that the length of the wire is measured precisely from the inside edge of the crocodile clips, making sure that the wire is straight when we do this. We must also make sure that the wire is straight when we conduct the experiment. If it is not, short circuits may occur and bends and kinks in the wire may effect the resistance, also. The reading that we take of the voltage should be done fairly promptly after the circuit is connected. This is because as soon as a current is put through the wire it will get hotter and we want to test it when heat is effecting it the least, i.e. at the beginning.

Results

These were the results for the nickel chromium wire at different lengths, with recordings for volts and current. I calculated the resistance using the formula

Graph of results

This is a graph to show the resistance plotted against the length of wire.

Observation of results and graph

A line of best fit was drawn on the graph, this is a good line as the results are very close to the line of best fit.

From the graph we can see one very clear trend, which is, as the length of the wire increases so does the resistance of it. Another, more significant thing is that the increase is constant. This is indicating by the fact that the line drawn is a straight one.

The graph's line of best fit passes through the origin. This is to be expected, as zero length implies zero resistance.

The fact that the graph is a straight line through the origin shows that resistance is directly proportional to length.

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